England 2015/16 to 2024/25
Published 31 July 2025
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Key findings
In England in 2024/25:
There were 67 million items for dependency-forming medicines prescribed to an estimated 7 million identified patients.
Opioid drugs were the most prescribed dependency-forming medicines with 39 million items at a cost of £270 million.
The cost of dependency-forming medicines prescribed in England was £366 million. This represents a 53% decrease from 2015/16.
The decline in cost is mainly due to:
A 79% decline in the total cost of gabapentoid prescribing since 2015/16. This was mainly due to a steep decline between 2016/17 and 2018/19 when pregabalin came off patent, which meant cheaper generic equivalents could be prescribed from August 2017.
A 36% decrease in the total cost of opioid drugs since 2015/16. There was a sharp decline between 2015/16 and 2018/19, followed by a continued gentler downward trend.
Prescribing of dependency-forming medicines was most prevalent in female patients aged 60 to 64 years, with 422,000 identified patients.
The most deprived areas in England had 57% more identified patients receiving dependency-forming medications than the least deprived areas.
1. Things you should know
1.1. Background
This publication was developed in response to the Public Health England (PHE) review into the dependence and withdrawal associated with some prescribed medicines.
Known as the prescribed medicines review (PMR), it recommended an increase in the availability and use of data on the prescribing of medicines that can cause dependence.
This publication includes data on 5 categories of medicines overall:
- Antidepressants
- Opioid pain medicine
- Gabapentinoids
- Benzodiazepines
- Z-drugs
Antidepressants are not included in the measures for volume, cost, or demographics. The current National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidance makes the distinction that antidepressants can cause withdrawal symptoms but are historically not dependency-forming. Additionally, the statistics for antidepressants can be found in the Medicines Used in Mental Health publication. Antidepressants are included in the co-prescribing measures in this publication.
This publication describes the prescribing of dependency-forming medicines in England that are dispensed in the community. This does not include data on medicines prescribed and dispensed in secondary care, prisons, or issued by a private prescriber.
These statistics detail:
- the total number of prescription items issued for dependency-forming medication
- the total cost of prescription items issued for these drugs
- the number of identified patients that have received prescribing for these drugs
- the number of identified patients receiving more than one dependency-forming medication
- demographic breakdowns of prescribing by age group and gender
- demographic breakdowns by gender
- demographic breakdowns by a measure of deprivation.
These statistics use the BNF therapeutic classifications defined in the British National Formulary (BNF) using the classification system prior to BNF edition 70. Each January the NHSBSA updates the classification of drugs within the BNF hierarchy which may involve some drugs changing classification between years of this publication. The categories of dependency-forming drugs do not align to specific sections of the BNF and have been filtered on chemical substance. A complete list can be found in appendix A of the background and methodology note that accompanies this release.
Many drugs have multiple uses, and although classified in the BNF by their primary therapeutic use may be issued to treat a condition outside of this. Due to this, these statistics may not give accurate estimations of prescribing to treat specific conditions.
These statistics do not exclude patients diagnosed with cancer and who are using an opioid to manage the pain that can be associated with malignant diseases, especially as part of end-of-life care. However, the PMR excluded opioids prescribed for cancer, using patient details from the PHE cancer registry. This means that some measures and the data for opioid pain medicines include more patients than the PMR analysis.
To exclude items used to treat an existing drug dependence or substance misuse disorder, drugs prescribed on FP10MDA instalment forms and from BNF Section 4.10 - Drugs used in substance dependence, were excluded from these statistics.
1.2. Key events
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| June 2015 | All Party Parliamentary Group for Prescribed Drug Dependence launched to address the growing problem of prescribed drug dependence. |
| September 2019 | Public Health England (PHE) prescribed medicines review (PMR) intended to identify the scale, distribution and causes of prescription drug dependence published. |
| August 2021 | Updated Opioid medicines and the risk of addiction Safety leaflet published by Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). |
| April 2022 | Medicines associated with dependence or withdrawal symptoms: safe prescribing and withdrawal management for adults guidance published by [NICE].(https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng215) |
| May 2022 | Opioid comparator dashboard to support Primary Care Networks (PCN) and GP practices published by NHSBSA. |
1.3. Definitions
Item
A single unit of medication listed separately on a prescription form. In this publication, an example of an item would be Fluoxetine 20mg tables x56.
NIC
The Net Ingredient Cost (NIC) is the basic price of the medication, and the quantity prescribed. It does not include other fees incurred by dispensing contractors, such as controlled drug fees or the single activity fee. The basic price is determined by the Drug Tariff or by the manufacturer, wholesaler, or supplier of the product.
Patient
A unique NHS number captured from a prescription form or electronic prescription service (EPS) message.
Dependence
The medicines included in these statistics are those that can cause issues with dependence. Dependence is an adaptation to repeated exposure to some drugs and medicines usually characterised by tolerance and withdrawal, though tolerance may not occur with some.
Tolerance
Tolerance is a neuroadaptation arising from repeatedly taking some drugs and medicines, which can mean higher doses are required to achieve the same effect.
Addiction
Addiction is the combination of dependence plus compulsive behaviours including patients not having control over doing, taking or using something to the point where it could be harmful to them.
Withdrawal
Withdrawal is the side effects or physiological reactions that a patient experiences when they stop taking a medication.
1.4. Patient identification
When the NHSBSA processes prescriptions it is not always possible to capture the NHS number of the patient. Table 1 shows the proportion of items for which a patient could be identified. This means that the data relating to patient counts represents most, but not all, patients.
Due to an increase in digital prescription processing through the Electronic Prescription Service (EPS) during the COVID-19 pandemic, more patients were identified in 2020/21, 2021/22 and 2022/23 compared to previous years. As patient identification rates increased, any increases in the number of identified patients between periods are likely to be an overestimate of the actual increase in patient numbers. This is because the proportion of patients who could be identified has increased. Conversely, any decrease over the same period is likely to be an underestimate of the actual decrease.
Where patients are identified, their age is calculated on 30 September of the given financial year to assign them to a single age band. For patients where date of birth has not been captured, they have been included in an unknown category.
Gender information was not available from the Personal Demographic Service (PDS) for a small number of patients in each year, typically fewer than 100. This may be because it was not disclosed by the patient or not recorded by the organisation that collected the data. Further information on PDS is included in 4.2.
These statistics do not include any information that is personally identifiable. You can find more information about how the NHSBSA protect personal information in the confidentiality and access statement.
Table 1: The proportion of items for which an NHS number was recorded for listed drug categories per financial year
| Drug Category | 2020/2021 | 2021/2022 | 2022/2023 | 2023/2024 | 2024/2025 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Benzodiazepines | 97.17% | 97.16% | 97.10% | 97.04% | 96.98% |
| Gabapentinoids | 99.27% | 99.35% | 99.36% | 99.41% | 99.44% |
| Opioids | 98.86% | 98.94% | 98.92% | 98.94% | 98.99% |
| Z-drugs | 98.28% | 98.32% | 98.29% | 98.27% | 98.20% |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
2. Results and commentary
2.1. Volume and cost
Number of dependency-forming medicine items prescribed and identified patients by financial year
Chart
Figure 1: Both items prescribed and identified patients have been declining since 2016/17
Table
Table 2: Both items prescribed and identified patients have been declining since 2016/17
| Financial Year | Identified patients | Prescription items |
|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | 8,121,381 | 67,748,773 |
| 2016/2017 | 8,130,581 | 69,285,043 |
| 2017/2018 | 7,930,753 | 69,090,062 |
| 2018/2019 | 7,701,902 | 68,558,585 |
| 2019/2020 | 7,456,978 | 68,488,925 |
| 2020/2021 | 7,095,324 | 67,691,439 |
| 2021/2022 | 7,174,596 | 67,661,528 |
| 2022/2023 | 7,118,027 | 67,319,239 |
| 2023/2024 | 7,068,158 | 66,800,526 |
| 2024/2025 | 7,023,845 | 66,685,985 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25:
67 million items for dependency-forming medicines were prescribed.
7 million identified patients were prescribed a dependency-forming item.
The number of items of dependency-forming medicines has been slowly decreasing since 2016/17, decreasing by 4% from 69.3 million in 2016/17 to 66.7 million in 2024/25.
Compared with 2016/17, the number of identified patients prescribed these medicines in 2024/25 has decreased by 14%, from 8.1 million to 7 million.
Cost of dependency-forming medicines per financial year
Chart
Figure 2: Costs have been declining since 2015/16, with the biggest decline between 2016/17 and 2018/19
Table
Table 3: Costs have been declining since 2015/16, with the biggest decline between 2016/17 and 2018/19
| Financial Year | Total Net Ingredient Cost (GBP) |
|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | 779,444,736 |
| 2016/2017 | 755,979,831 |
| 2017/2018 | 557,337,678 |
| 2018/2019 | 409,901,953 |
| 2019/2020 | 400,468,207 |
| 2020/2021 | 419,383,637 |
| 2021/2022 | 404,983,828 |
| 2022/2023 | 382,847,606 |
| 2023/2024 | 372,495,097 |
| 2024/2025 | 365,892,641 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25, the costs of prescribed drugs classed as dependency-forming was £366 million.
The cost of dependency-forming medicines has declined by 53% compared with £780 million in 2015/16.
The changes from 2016/17 to 2018/19 were mainly due to pregabalin, a gabapenintoid coming off patent and entering Category M of the drug tariff, meaning cheaper generic equivalents could be prescribed from August 2017.
There was also a 36% decrease in the total cost of opioid drugs since 2015/16. There was a sharp decline between 2015/16 and 2018/19, followed by a continued gentler downward trend. This is more apparent in figure 5 and its data.
Number of dependency-forming medicine items prescribed by drug category per financial year
Chart
Figure 3: Opioids are the most prescribed dependency-forming medicine
Table
Table 4: Opioids are the most prescribed dependency-forming medicine
| Financial Year | Drug Category | Total Items |
|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | Benzodiazepines | 8,713,250 |
| 2015/2016 | Gabapentinoids | 10,876,202 |
| 2015/2016 | Opioids | 41,760,700 |
| 2015/2016 | Z-drugs | 6,398,621 |
| 2016/2017 | Benzodiazepines | 8,471,254 |
| 2016/2017 | Gabapentinoids | 12,390,022 |
| 2016/2017 | Opioids | 42,088,837 |
| 2016/2017 | Z-drugs | 6,334,930 |
| 2017/2018 | Benzodiazepines | 8,063,786 |
| 2017/2018 | Gabapentinoids | 13,619,282 |
| 2017/2018 | Opioids | 41,299,394 |
| 2017/2018 | Z-drugs | 6,107,600 |
| 2018/2019 | Benzodiazepines | 7,714,457 |
| 2018/2019 | Gabapentinoids | 14,495,357 |
| 2018/2019 | Opioids | 40,429,878 |
| 2018/2019 | Z-drugs | 5,918,893 |
| 2019/2020 | Benzodiazepines | 7,477,547 |
| 2019/2020 | Gabapentinoids | 14,884,670 |
| 2019/2020 | Opioids | 40,346,917 |
| 2019/2020 | Z-drugs | 5,779,791 |
| 2020/2021 | Benzodiazepines | 7,051,396 |
| 2020/2021 | Gabapentinoids | 15,270,644 |
| 2020/2021 | Opioids | 39,685,897 |
| 2020/2021 | Z-drugs | 5,683,502 |
| 2021/2022 | Benzodiazepines | 6,767,529 |
| 2021/2022 | Gabapentinoids | 15,777,041 |
| 2021/2022 | Opioids | 39,642,598 |
| 2021/2022 | Z-drugs | 5,474,360 |
| 2022/2023 | Benzodiazepines | 6,411,637 |
| 2022/2023 | Gabapentinoids | 16,189,458 |
| 2022/2023 | Opioids | 39,401,517 |
| 2022/2023 | Z-drugs | 5,316,627 |
| 2023/2024 | Benzodiazepines | 6,051,578 |
| 2023/2024 | Gabapentinoids | 16,589,168 |
| 2023/2024 | Opioids | 39,046,206 |
| 2023/2024 | Z-drugs | 5,113,574 |
| 2024/2025 | Benzodiazepines | 5,760,992 |
| 2024/2025 | Gabapentinoids | 17,021,451 |
| 2024/2025 | Opioids | 39,015,441 |
| 2024/2025 | Z-drugs | 4,888,101 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25:
39 million opioid items were prescribed.
17 million gabapenintoid items were prescribed.
5.8 million benzodiazepine items were prescribed.
The number of dependency-forming medicine items decreased in three of the four drug groups between 2015/16 and 2024/25.
Opioid drugs decreased from 42 million items to 39 million. They remain the most prescribed dependency-forming medicine in 2024/25.
Benzodiazepine items decreased by 34% from 8.7 million items to 5.8 million.
Z-drugs decreased by 24% from 6.4 million items to 4.9 million.
There was a 56% increase in gabapenintoid items from 2015/16 to 2024/25, from 11 million to 17 million.
Number of identified patients per 1,000 population by drug category per financial year
Chart
Figure 4: Opioids are the dependency-forming medicine with the highest identified patients per 1,000 population
Table
Table 5: Opioids are the dependency-forming medicine with the highest identified patients per 1,000 population
| Financial Year | Drug Category | Patients per 1,000 Population |
|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | Benzodiazepines | 26.7 |
| 2015/2016 | Gabapentinoids | 22.7 |
| 2015/2016 | Opioids | 118.3 |
| 2015/2016 | Z-drugs | 19.2 |
| 2016/2017 | Benzodiazepines | 26.3 |
| 2016/2017 | Gabapentinoids | 25.0 |
| 2016/2017 | Opioids | 116.7 |
| 2016/2017 | Z-drugs | 18.9 |
| 2017/2018 | Benzodiazepines | 25.0 |
| 2017/2018 | Gabapentinoids | 26.4 |
| 2017/2018 | Opioids | 112.4 |
| 2017/2018 | Z-drugs | 18.0 |
| 2018/2019 | Benzodiazepines | 23.8 |
| 2018/2019 | Gabapentinoids | 27.1 |
| 2018/2019 | Opioids | 107.6 |
| 2018/2019 | Z-drugs | 17.1 |
| 2019/2020 | Benzodiazepines | 22.5 |
| 2019/2020 | Gabapentinoids | 26.6 |
| 2019/2020 | Opioids | 103.4 |
| 2019/2020 | Z-drugs | 16.2 |
| 2020/2021 | Benzodiazepines | 19.6 |
| 2020/2021 | Gabapentinoids | 26.3 |
| 2020/2021 | Opioids | 99.1 |
| 2020/2021 | Z-drugs | 15.7 |
| 2021/2022 | Benzodiazepines | 19.3 |
| 2021/2022 | Gabapentinoids | 26.9 |
| 2021/2022 | Opioids | 99.8 |
| 2021/2022 | Z-drugs | 14.7 |
| 2022/2023 | Benzodiazepines | 18.6 |
| 2022/2023 | Gabapentinoids | 27.2 |
| 2022/2023 | Opioids | 97.9 |
| 2022/2023 | Z-drugs | 13.9 |
| 2023/2024 | Benzodiazepines | 17.1 |
| 2023/2024 | Gabapentinoids | 27.3 |
| 2023/2024 | Opioids | 96.4 |
| 2023/2024 | Z-drugs | 13.3 |
| 2024/2025 | Benzodiazepines | 15.8 |
| 2024/2025 | Gabapentinoids | 27.6 |
| 2024/2025 | Opioids | 96.4 |
| 2024/2025 | Z-drugs | 12.5 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25:
96 patients per 1,000 population were prescribed an opioid drug.
28 patients per 1,000 population were prescribed a gabapenintoid.
16 patients per 1,000 population were prescribed a benzodiazepine.
The patients per 1,000 population are calculated using the Office for National Statistics (ONS) population estimates. The ONS had not yet published updated population estimates for 2024/25 at the time of reporting. As a result, population rates for 2024/25 were calculated using the same mid-year population estimate as 2023/24, and should be considered provisional.
The rate of patients prescribed dependency-forming medicine items also decreased in three of the four drug groups between 2015/16 and 2024/25.
Opioid prescribing decreased from 118 to 96 patients per 1,000 population, remaining unchanged from 2023/24.
Benzodiazepines decreased from 27 patients to 16 per 1,000 population.
Z-drugs decreased from 19 patients to 13 per 1,000 population.
Prescribing of gabapenintoids increased from 23 patients to 28 patients per 1,000 population in from 2015/16 to 2024/25.
Cost of dependency-forming medicines prescribed by drug category per financial year
Chart
Figure 5: Opioids are the dependency-forming medicine with the highest costs
Table
Table 6: Opioids are the dependency-forming medicine with the highest costs
| Financial Year | Drug Category | Total Net Ingredient Cost (GBP) |
|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | Benzodiazepines | 31,031,136 |
| 2015/2016 | Gabapentinoids | 322,087,432 |
| 2015/2016 | Opioids | 418,624,730 |
| 2015/2016 | Z-drugs | 7,701,439 |
| 2016/2017 | Benzodiazepines | 23,468,433 |
| 2016/2017 | Gabapentinoids | 349,314,811 |
| 2016/2017 | Opioids | 377,522,126 |
| 2016/2017 | Z-drugs | 5,674,461 |
| 2017/2018 | Benzodiazepines | 22,271,530 |
| 2017/2018 | Gabapentinoids | 196,333,878 |
| 2017/2018 | Opioids | 334,382,742 |
| 2017/2018 | Z-drugs | 4,349,528 |
| 2018/2019 | Benzodiazepines | 18,992,531 |
| 2018/2019 | Gabapentinoids | 78,506,142 |
| 2018/2019 | Opioids | 308,836,412 |
| 2018/2019 | Z-drugs | 3,566,868 |
| 2019/2020 | Benzodiazepines | 20,691,728 |
| 2019/2020 | Gabapentinoids | 61,750,196 |
| 2019/2020 | Opioids | 313,501,880 |
| 2019/2020 | Z-drugs | 4,524,403 |
| 2020/2021 | Benzodiazepines | 24,156,141 |
| 2020/2021 | Gabapentinoids | 68,219,779 |
| 2020/2021 | Opioids | 321,815,860 |
| 2020/2021 | Z-drugs | 5,191,858 |
| 2021/2022 | Benzodiazepines | 25,174,727 |
| 2021/2022 | Gabapentinoids | 68,530,782 |
| 2021/2022 | Opioids | 306,761,734 |
| 2021/2022 | Z-drugs | 4,516,585 |
| 2022/2023 | Benzodiazepines | 31,426,920 |
| 2022/2023 | Gabapentinoids | 64,766,535 |
| 2022/2023 | Opioids | 282,504,452 |
| 2022/2023 | Z-drugs | 4,149,699 |
| 2023/2024 | Benzodiazepines | 27,421,369 |
| 2023/2024 | Gabapentinoids | 62,008,113 |
| 2023/2024 | Opioids | 277,599,054 |
| 2023/2024 | Z-drugs | 5,466,561 |
| 2024/2025 | Benzodiazepines | 24,288,941 |
| 2024/2025 | Gabapentinoids | 67,856,764 |
| 2024/2025 | Opioids | 269,466,667 |
| 2024/2025 | Z-drugs | 4,280,270 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25:
The cost of opioid drugs was £270 million.
Gabapenintoids had a cost of £68 million.
The cost of benzodiazepines was £24 million.
The drugs costs decreased in all four drug groups between 2015/16 and 2024/25.
Opioids account for the greatest drug costs, although opioid drug costs decreased by 36% from £420 million in 2015/16. These decreases are greater than the respective decreases in the number of prescribed items. The five opioid drugs with the biggest drop in cost were fentanyl, tramadol, co-codamol, oxycodone, and buprenorphine. Between 2015/16 and 2024/25, their combined cost fell by £131 million, from £323 million to £192 million. Drug costs may be impacted by a complex mix of factors including prescribing practices, market forces, patents, policy and the global context.
The cost of gabapenintoids decreased by 79% from £320 million in 2015/16 but they had a 9% increase from £62 million in 2023/24. The costs of gabapenintoids decreased in consecutive years between 2017/18 and 2019/20, following pregabalin’s entry into category M of the drug tariff, which meant cheaper generic equivalents could be prescribed from August 2017.
The cost of benzodiazepines was down from £31 million in 2015/16 and £27 million in 2023/24.
Z-drugs decreased in cost to £4.3 million after an increase to £5.5 million in 2023/24.
Average number of dependency-forming medicine items per patient by financial year
Chart
Figure 6: The average number of dependency-forming items per patient has increased between 2015/16 and 2024/25
Table
Table 7: The average number of dependency-forming items per patient has increased between 2015/16 and 2024/25
| Financial Year | Total Items | Total Identified Patients | Items Per Patient |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | 63,249,259 | 8,121,381 | 7.8 |
| 2016/2017 | 66,210,227 | 8,130,581 | 8.1 |
| 2017/2018 | 66,568,968 | 7,930,753 | 8.4 |
| 2018/2019 | 66,289,591 | 7,701,902 | 8.6 |
| 2019/2020 | 66,893,850 | 7,456,978 | 9.0 |
| 2020/2021 | 66,829,855 | 7,095,324 | 9.4 |
| 2021/2022 | 66,854,210 | 7,174,596 | 9.3 |
| 2022/2023 | 66,511,831 | 7,118,027 | 9.3 |
| 2023/2024 | 66,020,870 | 7,068,158 | 9.3 |
| 2024/2025 | 65,933,289 | 7,023,845 | 9.4 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
The average number of dependency-forming medicine items per patient has increased from 7.8 in 2015/16 to 9.4 per patient in 2024/25.
2.2. Patient demographics
Number of identified patients receiving dependency-forming medicine prescribing by gender and financial year
Chart
Figure 7: The overall split of male and female patients has remained consistent between 2015/16 and 2024/25
Table
Table 8: The overall split of male and female patients has remained consistent between 2015/16 and 2024/25
| Financial Year | Patient Gender | Total Identified Patients |
|---|---|---|
| 2015/2016 | Female | 4,900,568 |
| 2015/2016 | Male | 3,198,224 |
| 2016/2017 | Female | 4,916,315 |
| 2016/2017 | Male | 3,198,489 |
| 2017/2018 | Female | 4,796,135 |
| 2017/2018 | Male | 3,123,905 |
| 2018/2019 | Female | 4,660,023 |
| 2018/2019 | Male | 3,031,963 |
| 2019/2020 | Female | 4,517,405 |
| 2019/2020 | Male | 2,932,136 |
| 2020/2021 | Female | 4,319,432 |
| 2020/2021 | Male | 2,773,486 |
| 2021/2022 | Female | 4,376,791 |
| 2021/2022 | Male | 2,795,300 |
| 2022/2023 | Female | 4,348,318 |
| 2022/2023 | Male | 2,766,878 |
| 2023/2024 | Female | 4,321,393 |
| 2023/2024 | Male | 2,743,899 |
| 2024/2025 | Female | 4,296,159 |
| 2024/2025 | Male | 2,724,137 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25, 61% of identified patients who were prescribed a dependency-forming item were female.
In 2024/25, 39% of identified patients who were prescribed a dependency-forming item were male.
Although the total number of identified patients prescribed dependency-forming medicines has decreased between 2015/16 and 2024/25, the gender split remains consistent at 61% female and 39% male in both years. However, in 2024/25, there were 600,000 fewer female identified patients and 470,000 fewer male identified patients compared to 2015/16.
Identified patients whose gender was unknown or indeterminate have been grouped together and can be found in the summary tables that accompany this release.
Number of identified patients receiving dependency-forming medicine prescribing by age and gender
Chart
Figure 8: Female patients aged 60 to 64 were the largest prescribing group for dependency-forming medicines in 2024/25
Table
Table 9: Female patients aged 60 to 64 were the largest prescribing group for dependency-forming medicines in 2024/25
| Financial Year | Age Band | Patient Gender | Total Identified Patients |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2024/2025 | 00-04 | Female | 400 |
| 2024/2025 | 00-04 | Male | 527 |
| 2024/2025 | 05-09 | Female | 827 |
| 2024/2025 | 05-09 | Male | 1,014 |
| 2024/2025 | 10-14 | Female | 4,535 |
| 2024/2025 | 10-14 | Male | 3,351 |
| 2024/2025 | 15-19 | Female | 33,166 |
| 2024/2025 | 15-19 | Male | 15,710 |
| 2024/2025 | 20-24 | Female | 83,025 |
| 2024/2025 | 20-24 | Male | 37,738 |
| 2024/2025 | 25-29 | Female | 136,867 |
| 2024/2025 | 25-29 | Male | 64,988 |
| 2024/2025 | 30-34 | Female | 197,867 |
| 2024/2025 | 30-34 | Male | 102,544 |
| 2024/2025 | 35-39 | Female | 243,476 |
| 2024/2025 | 35-39 | Male | 134,674 |
| 2024/2025 | 40-44 | Female | 270,273 |
| 2024/2025 | 40-44 | Male | 159,367 |
| 2024/2025 | 45-49 | Female | 280,885 |
| 2024/2025 | 45-49 | Male | 174,687 |
| 2024/2025 | 50-54 | Female | 358,358 |
| 2024/2025 | 50-54 | Male | 229,950 |
| 2024/2025 | 55-59 | Female | 406,255 |
| 2024/2025 | 55-59 | Male | 276,500 |
| 2024/2025 | 60-64 | Female | 422,165 |
| 2024/2025 | 60-64 | Male | 308,379 |
| 2024/2025 | 65-69 | Female | 377,672 |
| 2024/2025 | 65-69 | Male | 282,126 |
| 2024/2025 | 70-74 | Female | 360,455 |
| 2024/2025 | 70-74 | Male | 258,513 |
| 2024/2025 | 75-79 | Female | 396,828 |
| 2024/2025 | 75-79 | Male | 266,045 |
| 2024/2025 | 80-84 | Female | 309,213 |
| 2024/2025 | 80-84 | Male | 187,933 |
| 2024/2025 | 85-89 | Female | 228,505 |
| 2024/2025 | 85-89 | Male | 124,102 |
| 2024/2025 | 90+ | Female | 169,479 |
| 2024/2025 | 90+ | Male | 67,252 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25, 420,000 female patients aged 60 to 64 were prescribed a dependency-forming item.
In 2024/25, 310,000 male patients aged 60 to 64 were prescribed a dependency-forming item.
Prescribing of dependency forming medicines peaks for both females and males age 60 to 64 years. In 2024/25. this group accounted for 10% of all identified patients who received a dependency-forming item.
Across almost all age groups, the number of female patients receiving dependency-forming medicines was consistently higher than that of males.
Number of identified patients receiving dependency-forming medicines prescribing by IMD quintile
Chart
Figure 9: More people were prescribed dependency-forming medicines in more deprived areas
Table
Table 10: More people were prescribed dependency-forming medicines in more deprived areas
| Financial Year | IMD Quintile | Total Identified Patients |
|---|---|---|
| 2024/2025 | 1 - Most Deprived | 1,809,527 |
| 2024/2025 | 2 | 1,544,860 |
| 2024/2025 | 3 | 1,406,372 |
| 2024/2025 | 4 | 1,299,945 |
| 2024/2025 | 5 - Least Deprived | 1,149,900 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Costs and Items
In 2024/25, 1.8 million patients who were prescribed a dependency-forming item were from the 20% most deprived areas in England.
In 2024/25, 1.1 million patients who were prescribed a dependency-forming item were from the 20% least deprived areas in England.
In 2024/25, the number of identified patients prescribed dependency-forming medicines was 57% higher in the most deprived areas of England compared to the least deprived. This trend of higher prescribing in more deprived areas has remained consistent since 2015/16.
2.3. Co-prescribing of drug categories
Co-prescribing is where a patient is receiving drugs from more than one category of dependency-forming medicine in the same month. Antidepressants which have been excluded from the previous sections have been included here because of the increased risk factors when combined with dependency-forming medicines. It is not possible to distinguish whether multiple prescriptions which have been reported for the same month were given consecutively or concurrently. As such, some activity will show as co-prescribing when in fact the individual was prescribed one medicine and another separately, and both were reported in the same month. March 2025 has been used for this analysis as the most recent month of available data and as it was representative of the recent trends in co-prescribing.
Number of identified patients receiving more than one category of dependency-forming medicines in the same month prescribing by number of categories
Chart
Figure 10: Almost a quarter of patients who received a prescription for dependency-forming medicines were prescribed drugs from more than one category in March 2025
Table
Table 11: Almost a quarter of patients who received a prescription for dependency-forming medicines were prescribed drugs from more than one category in March 2025
| Year Month | Number of Categories | Total Identified Patients |
|---|---|---|
| 202503 | 1 | 5,036,919 |
| 202503 | 2 | 1,210,280 |
| 202503 | 3 | 322,244 |
| 202503 | 4 | 42,312 |
| 202503 | 5 | 4,799 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Co-prescribing
In March 2025, 24% of patients who received a prescription for dependency-forming medicines were prescribed drugs from more than one category.
In March 2025, less than 0.1% of patients who received a prescription for dependency-forming medicines were prescribed drugs from all 5 categories, around 4,800 individuals.
In total, an estimated 6.6 million identified patients received a prescription in March 2025 in at least one of the dependency-forming medicine categories. Of these, 1.2 million received prescriptions in two categories, representing 18% of patients.
Number of identified patients receiving prescribing of a combination of two dependency-forming medicines
Chart
Figure 11: Opioids and antidepressants was the most popular combination of drugs for those patients receiving items from 2 categories of dependency-forming medicines in March 2025
Table
Table 12: Opioids and antidepressants was the most popular combination of drugs for those patients receiving items from 2 categories of dependency-forming medicines in March 2025
| Year Month | Drug Combination | Total Identified Patients |
|---|---|---|
| 202503 | Opioids and Antidepressants | 639,007 |
| 202503 | Gabapentinoids and Antidepressants | 233,955 |
| 202503 | Opioids and Gabapentinoids | 146,786 |
| 202503 | Benzodiazepines and Antidepressants | 66,718 |
| 202503 | Z-Drugs and Antidepressants | 61,918 |
| 202503 | Opioids and Benzodiazepines | 26,040 |
| 202503 | Opioids and Z-Drugs | 19,132 |
| 202503 | Benzodiazepines and Gabapentinoids | 6,187 |
| 202503 | Z-Drugs and Gabapentinoids | 5,338 |
| 202503 | Benzodiazepines and Z-Drugs | 5,199 |
Source: Dependency-forming medicines summary tables - Co-prescribing
In March 2025, the most popular combination of drugs for patients receiving items from two categories of dependency-forming medicines, was opioids and antidepressants, with 640,000 patients. This accounted for 53% of patients who received prescribing in two categories of dependency-forming medicines.
This was followed by gabapentinoids and antidepressants, with 230,000 patients. This represented 19% of patients who received prescribing in two categories of dependency-forming medicines.
3. Background
3.1. Opioid pain medicine
Opioids provide pain relief by acting on areas in the spinal cord and brain to block the transmission of pain signals.
Most opioids are schedule 2 controlled drugs, unless very low strength which may be schedule 5, and are available in a wide variety of medication forms.
Opioids should only be considered for the short-to-medium-term treatment of chronic non-malignant pain, when other therapies have been insufficient and the benefits of use are considered to outweigh the risks of harm.
Opioid analgesics are usually used for palliative care, where potential for dependence is not a deterrent, and chronic (lasting more than 12 weeks) moderate-to-severe pain exists where other treatments have been insufficient due to the potential for dependence.
You can find out more information on opioid analgesics on the NICE website. Resources for the prescribing of opioids have been produced by the Faculty of Pain Medicine in partnership with PHE.
3.2. Gabapentinoids
Gabapentinoids is the combined name for gabapentin and pregabalin which are antiepileptic drugs also used in the treatment of neuropathic pain and in the case of pregabalin, anxiety.
In epilepsy, gabapentinoids stop seizures by reducing the abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
With nerve pain, they block pain by affecting the pain messages travelling through the brain and down the spine.
When pregabalin is used to treat anxiety, it prevents the brain from releasing the chemicals that cause anxiety.
Both gabapenintoids are schedule 3 controlled drugs and are available as capsules, tablets, or a liquid.
You can find out more about gabapentin and pregabalin on the NHS website.
3.3. Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are a commonly used hypnotic and anxiolytic medicine. Hypnotics and anxiolytics are used to treat insomnia and anxiety respectively. Benzodiazepines work by increasing the effects of a calming chemical in the brain called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Benzodiazepines are indicated for the short-term relief of severe anxiety. Long-term use should be avoided and should also only be used to treat insomnia only when it is severe, disabling, or causing the patient extreme distress
The majority of benzodiazepines are schedule 4 controlled drugs with some belonging to schedule 3, and are available as capsules, tablets, injectables, suppositories or a liquid.
Insomnia is difficulty getting to sleep or staying asleep for long enough to feel refreshed in the morning, despite there being enough opportunity to sleep. An insomniac may also experience:
- waking in the night
- not feeling refreshed after sleep and not being able to function normally during the day
- feeling irritable and tired and finding it difficult to concentrate
- waking when they have been disturbed from sleep by pain or noise
- waking early in the morning
Anxiety is a feeling of unease, such as worry or fear, which can be mild or severe. Everyone experiences feelings of anxiety at some point in their life and feeling anxious is sometimes perfectly normal. However, people with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) find it hard to control their worries. Their feelings of anxiety are more constant and often affect their daily life. There are several conditions for which anxiety is the main symptom. Panic disorder, phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder can all cause severe anxiety.
You can find more information about insomnia and anxiety from the NHS website, and further information about hypnotics and anxiolytics at the NICE website, though this includes drugs other than benzodiazepines.
3.4. Z-drugs
Z drugs are are non-benzodiazepine hypnotics made up of zaleplon, zolpidem and zopiclone. As hypnotics they are also used to treat insomnia. Z drugs work by affecting a calming chemical in the brain called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Zolpidem is a schedule 4 controlled drug and is available as tablets or a powder. Zaleplon is not a controlled drug and is available as a capsule and zopiclone is not a controlled drug and is available as capsules, tablets, or a liquid.
You can find more information about insomnia on the NHS website and further information about hypnotics and anxiolytics at the NICE website.
3.5. Antidepressants
Antidepressant drugs are licensed to treat major depression. Health professionals use the words depression, depressive illness or clinical depression to refer to depression. It is a serious illness and very different from the common experience of feeling unhappy or fed up for a short period of time. Depressed people may have feelings of extreme sadness that can last for a long time. These feelings are severe enough to interfere with daily life, and can last for weeks, months or years, rather than days.
It should be noted that antidepressant drugs are used for indications other than depression. For example, they can used for migraine, chronic pain, Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME), or a range of other conditions. Clinical indication is not captured by the NHSBSA. Therefore, the statistics on these drugs do not relate solely to prescribing for depression.
You can find more information about depression on the NHS website.
4. About these statistics
Further information on the methodology used in this publication and further background information is available in our Background Information and Methodology supporting document.
4.1. Patient counts
The patient counts shown in these statistics should only be analysed at the level at which they are presented. Adding together any patient counts is likely to result in an overestimate of the number of patients. A person will be included, or counted, in each category or time period in which they received relevant prescriptions. For example, if a patient received a prescription item for a dependency-forming medicine product in 2018/19 and another in 2019/20, then adding together those totals would count that patient twice. For the same reason, data on patient counts for different drug categories should not be added together.
4.2. Patient age and gender
The age and gender of patients used in these statistics is derived from data provided by the NHS PDS for NHS numbers that have been successfully verified by them. A patient’s age, used to assign them to an age group, has been calculated on 30 September for the given financial year. It is possible that a patient’s PDS information may change over the course of the year, in these cases patients may be subject to multiple counting in these analyses.
4.3. Index of deprivation
The English Indices of Deprivation 2019 have been used to provide a measure of patient deprivation. The English Indices of Deprivation are an official national measure of deprivation that follows an established methodological framework to capture a wide range of individuals living conditions.
The reported IMD quintile, is derived from the postcode of the patient an item has been prescribed to. Quintile 1 represents the 20% most deprived areas and quintile 5 is the 20% least deprived areas. There are a small number of items each year that we have reported as having an unknown IMD quintile. These are items where we have been unable to match the patient postcode to a postcode in the National Statistics Postcode Lookup (NSPL) - August 2024.
IMD deciles are calculated by ranking census lower-layer super output areas (LSOA) from most deprived to least deprived and dividing them into 10 equal groups. These range from the most deprived 10% (decile 1) of small areas nationally to the least deprived 10% (decile 10) of small areas nationally. We have aggregated these deciles into quintiles in this publication, for use alongside the NHS Core20PLUS5 approach.
4.4. Geographies included in this publication
The patient deprivation measures in these statistics are based on the patient’s postcode. Each postcode is linked to a Lower Layer Super Output Area (LSOA) using the August 2024 National Statistics Postcode Lookup (NSPL) file for 2011 census LSOAs. This allows deprivation to be measured using standard geographical boundaries.
Unlike LSOAs, the higher-level geographies shown in the statistical summary tables, such as Integrated Care Boards (ICBs), are based on NHS Business Services Authority (NHSBSA) administrative records rather than geographical boundaries. This approach better reflects how GP practices are organised and managed in practice, rather than strictly following geographical definitions.
4.5. Co-prescribing measures
In these statistics, co-prescribing refers to the reporting of 2 or more drug categories of medicine for the same identified patient in the same month. Co-prescribing is reported based on the number of categories, up to 5, that were reported in the same month, with greater than one deemed to be co-prescribing. The main limitation is that it is not possible to distinguish whether multiple prescriptions that have been reported for the same month were given consecutively or concurrently. As such, some activity will be flagged in this analysis as co-prescribing, implying they were received at the same time, when in fact the individual was prescribed one medicine and then another separately, and both were reported in the same month.
5. Rounding
The high-level figures in this statistical summary have been rounded as per the table below:
| From | To | Round to nearest |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 1,000 | 1 |
| 1,001 | 10,000 | 100 |
| 10,001 | 100,000 | 1,000 |
| 100,001 | 1,000,000 | 10,000 |
| 1,000,001 | 10,000,000 | 100,000 |
| 10,000,001 | 100,000,000 | 1,000,000 |
| 100,000,001 | 100,000,000,000 | 10,000,000 |
All changes and totals are calculated prior to rounding. Percentage changes are calculated prior to rounding and then are rounded to the nearest whole number. As all figures within this statistical summary have been rounded, they may not match totals elsewhere when aggregated.
The summary tables released with this publication allow users to investigate this data at lower levels of granularity. Figures in the supplementary tables have not been rounded.
6. Statistical disclosure control
Statistical disclosure control has been applied to these statistics. Patient count, items, and net ingredient cost (NIC) have been redacted in the supporting summary tables if they relate to fewer than 5 patients. Further information about our statistical disclosure control protocol can be found on our website.
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